Al-Andalus from Conquest to Fall (Volume 2)

Main Themes:

• The Islamic Conquest of Al-Andalus: The text provides a detailed account of the initial phase of the Islamic expansion into Al-Andalus, beginning around the year 92 AH (711 CE).

• Leadership and Strategy: The importance of effective and pious leadership in military campaigns and the consolidation of Islamic rule is a recurring theme, exemplified by Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad.

• Integration of New Muslims: The successful integration of the Berber tribes into the Islamic army and their vital role in the conquest is emphasized.

• Challenges and Obstacles: The document outlines the significant geographical, logistical, and political hurdles that the Muslim forces had to overcome.

• The Nature of Islamic Conquest: The text underscores the principles of Islamic warfare, including offering the option of conversion or paying the Jizya (tribute) before resorting to conflict.

• Debunking Historical Narratives: The author critically examines and refutes the widely circulated story of Tariq ibn Ziyad burning his ships.

Most Important Ideas and Facts:

• Key Figures:

• Musa ibn Nusayr: A renowned Muslim general who conquered North Africa and played a crucial role in the planning and support of the Al-Andalus conquest. He is described as a "brilliant, pious, and devout" leader.

• Tariq ibn Ziyad: The direct and principal commander of the forces that initially conquered Al-Andalus. He is highlighted as a Berber leader of exceptional military skill and piety.

• Nusayr: Musa ibn Nusayr's father, a former Christian captive who embraced Islam and rose through the ranks to become a commander in the Umayyad army.

• Julian (Yuliyan): A Christian ruler of Ceuta who was in conflict with the Visigothic king Roderic and provided crucial assistance to the Muslims, including ships and intelligence.

• Roderic (Ludhriq/Rudriku): The Visigothic king of Al-Andalus at the time of the conquest, described as powerful but tyrannical and unpopular with his people.

• Witiza (Ghayshta): Roderic's predecessor, who had a good relationship with Julian. His sons sought Julian's help against Roderic.

• The Start of the Conquest: The Islamic conquest of Al-Andalus began in the year 92 AH (711 CE).

• Strategic Importance of North Africa: Understanding the situation in North Africa, particularly the integration of the Berber tribes, is presented as essential for comprehending the Al-Andalus conquest. The author notes that while the Berbers initially apostatized repeatedly, Islam eventually stabilized among them under Musa ibn Nusayr's leadership around 85 or 86 AH.

• Lessons from Past Failures in North Africa: Musa ibn Nusayr learned from the mistakes of previous campaigns in North Africa, specifically the assassination of Uqba ibn Nafi. He addressed two key issues:

1. Protecting the Rear: Instead of rapid, deep penetration, Musa advanced cautiously, securing his rear before moving forward. This is cited as a reason for the conquest taking longer (6-7 years) compared to Uqba's quicker campaigns.

2. Educating the People: Recognizing that previous converts lacked a deep understanding of Islam, Musa brought scholars from Sham (Syria) and Hijaz to teach the Berbers. This led to genuine love for Islam and their willingness to fight for it.

• Motivation for Conquest: Musa ibn Nusayr was inspired by the Quranic verse: "Fight those who are near to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness." (Quran 9:123). Al-Andalus was the territory adjacent to North Africa, thus fitting this directive.

• Pre-existing Idea of Conquest: The idea of conquering Al-Andalus was not new, dating back to the time of Uthman ibn Affan (the third Caliph). Uthman believed that Constantinople would be conquered from the west, implying the importance of first conquering Al-Andalus.

• Major Obstacles to Conquest: Musa ibn Nusayr faced several significant challenges:

1. The Strait of Gibraltar: The water barrier between North Africa and Al-Andalus was a major obstacle, and the Muslims lacked sufficient ships. The strait is 13 kilometers wide in some parts and up to 37 kilometers in others.

2. The Balearic Islands: These islands to the east of Al-Andalus were under Christian control and posed a threat to the Muslim rear if Al-Andalus was conquered without securing them first.

3. Unconquered Ceuta: The strategic port of Ceuta, commanding the Strait of Gibraltar, was ruled by the Christian Julian and remained uncaptured, posing a potential threat.

4. Limited Muslim Forces: The available Muslim troops in North Africa were relatively few and spread out.

5. Strong Visigothic Army: The Christian forces in Al-Andalus under Roderic were numerous, well-equipped, and held fortified castles and strongholds.

6. Unknown Terrain: Al-Andalus was largely unknown territory to the Muslim forces, with challenging mountainous terrain, rivers, and lakes.

• Overcoming the Obstacles: Musa ibn Nusayr tackled these problems systematically:

1. Shipbuilding: He initiated the construction of ships and built several ports in North Africa, including a major one near Kairouan.

2. Training the Berbers: He provided intensive Islamic education and military training to the Berbers, transforming them into a significant part of the Muslim army.

3. Appointing Tariq ibn Ziyad: He appointed Tariq ibn Ziyad, a capable and pious Berber leader, to command the forces heading to Al-Andalus. This demonstrated that leadership was based on merit, not ethnicity, reflecting the Islamic principle of equality.

4. Conquering the Balearic Islands: Musa secured his eastern flank by conquering the Balearic Islands before the main invasion of Al-Andalus.

5. Divine Intervention and Julian's Assistance: The text emphasizes the role of divine providence in resolving the remaining challenges. Julian, driven by his animosity towards Roderic and encouraged by the sons of Witiza, contacted Tariq ibn Ziyad and offered crucial assistance:

• Surrendering Ceuta.

• Providing ships for the crossing.

• Sharing intelligence about the terrain and forces in Al-Andalus.

• The Crossing and the Battle of Guadalete (Wadi Barbat):

• The Muslim army, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in Sha'ban 92 AH.

• They landed at a mountain subsequently known as Jabal Tariq (Gibraltar).

• They encountered a smaller Christian garrison in the south, offering them the choice of Islam, paying the Jizya, or fighting.

• The garrison chose to fight and was defeated.

• The garrison's leader sent a message to Roderic in Toledo, describing the Muslims as a strange people who offered unheard-of terms (leaving possessions upon conversion or paying Jizya). He also noted their piety (praying at night) and their ferocity in battle.

• Roderic gathered a large army of 100,000 men and marched south.

• Tariq ibn Ziyad, with a force of 12,000 (7,000 initially, reinforced by 5,000 under Tarif ibn Malik), chose a strategic location in Wadi Barbat (also known as Wadi Lakka or Wadi Lukka), which was protected by mountains and a lake.

• The Battle of Wadi Barbat took place on 28 Ramadan 92 AH.

• Debunking the Burning Ships Narrative: The author strongly argues against the popular story that Tariq ibn Ziyad burned his ships to motivate his troops. His arguments include:

• Lack of Authentic Islamic Sources: The story is not found in reliable early Muslim historical texts but appears primarily in European accounts.

• Absence of Reaction from Muslim Leaders: If such a drastic action occurred, it would likely have elicited a reaction or discussion from Musa ibn Nusayr or the Caliph Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, which is absent in historical records.

• European Motivation: The author suggests that European historians may have fabricated this story to explain the surprising victory of a smaller Muslim force against a much larger Christian army, implying that the Muslims won only out of desperation, not because of their inherent strength or faith.

• Islamic Military Philosophy: The author highlights the Islamic belief that victory comes from Allah, regardless of numbers, citing the Quranic verse: "How often has a small company overcome a large company by the permission of Allah. And Allah is with the patient." (Quran 2:249). He also notes that Muslim history often features victories against numerically superior foes, and even when Muslims had a numerical advantage (like at Hunayn), they could face defeat if they relied on their numbers rather than Allah.

• Motivation of the Muslim Army: The Muslim soldiers were already motivated by their desire for Jihad and martyrdom, making it unnecessary to resort to such extreme measures for motivation.

• Illogicality for a Skilled Commander: Burning the ships would eliminate a crucial line of retreat, an illogical move for a seasoned commander like Tariq ibn Ziyad, as military outcomes can be unpredictable.

• The Concept of Jizya: The text explains Jizya as a tribute paid by non-Muslims (People of the Book and, in some views, polytheists) in exchange for protection and exemption from military service. Key points about Jizya:

• It is only collected from adult, able-bodied men.

• Women, children, the sick, the disabled, and those dedicated to worship (who do not fight) are exempt.

• It is only levied on those who are financially capable.

• Poor non-Muslims may even receive support from the Muslim treasury.

• The amount of Jizya (one dinar per year for a capable man) is significantly less than the Zakat (alms tax) paid by Muslims (2.5% of wealth).

• Jizya is lower than taxes imposed by the previous rulers and taxes in other contemporary societies.

• Conversion to Islam cancels the Jizya.

• Non-Muslims who participate in military campaigns alongside Muslims are paid.

• The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) warned against oppressing or overburdening those who have agreements (non-Muslims under Muslim rule).

Key Quotes:

• On Musa ibn Nusayr: "was one of the most prominent Muslim conquering commanders in history, having conquered North Africa and the lands of Al-Andalus."

• On Tariq ibn Ziyad: "the actual and direct commander of the conquest of Al-Andalus, who fought the Christian Goths in Al-Andalus and defeated them in the famous Battle of Wadi Barbat, despite the small number and equipment of the Muslims."

• On Musa ibn Nusayr learning from past mistakes: "So Musa ibn Nusayr began to conquer the lands calmly and cautiously, and he began to advance step by step and secure his rear, then he would enter another step and secure his rear, and thus the conquest of the lands was completed in six or seven years, while Uqba ibn Nafi completed the matter in a few months."

• On educating the Berbers: "So he began to teach them Islam, and he brought the Followers from the region of Sham and Hijaz to teach the people Islam, and the people loved Islam and entered the religion of Allah Almighty in droves."

• On appointing Tariq ibn Ziyad: "He entrusted Tariq ibn Ziyad with the command of the Muslim army heading to conquer Al-Andalus, because he combined piety, devotion, military competence, and Jihad in the cause of Allah, and the desire to die in the cause of Allah, and he was a Berber, not an Arab, for no Arab has superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have superiority over an Arab except by piety."

• On the idea of conquering Al-Andalus dating back to Uthman: "The idea of conquering Al-Andalus was an old idea that the Muslims had pondered since the time of our master Uthman ibn Affan."

• On divine intervention and Julian's help: "When Musa ibn Nusayr had exhausted all effort and capacity and did all that he could, the care and planning of the Lord of the Worlds intervened, Allah Almighty said: 'And you did not throw when you threw, but Allah threw.' [Quran 8:17] And 'Indeed, Allah defends those who have believed.' [Quran 22:38]"

• On the Muslim offer before battle: "They offered them things: either enter into Islam and you will have what we have and be obligated to what we are obligated to, and we will leave all your possessions in your hands on the condition that you adhere to the religion of Allah Almighty, or pay the Jizya to the Muslims, and we will also leave everything in your hands, or enter into battle with us and we will not delay you except three days. This was the call of the Muslims."

• On the Battle of Wadi Barbat: "A battle from the fiercest battles in the history of the Muslims took place, which is the Battle of Wadi Barbat on the 28th of Ramadan in the year 92 AH."

• Debunking the burning ships narrative: "And the truth is that this narration should never stand, for it is one of the narrations, and some historians believe the narration, but it is one of the false Islamic narrations that have been introduced into the history of the Muslims."

• On Islamic victory and numbers: "And the one who looks at the pages of Islamic history finds it very natural for the Muslims to win with small numbers over other armies, rather the recurring principle in most Islamic battles is that the Muslims are few and the disbelievers are many, and the enemies of the Muslims are defeated by this small number of Muslims."

• On Jizya: "And the Jizya is a tax paid by the People of the Book in general, or paid by the Magians or the polytheists in the opinion of some jurists, although this is the dominant opinion, they pay it in return for the Muslims defending them, and those who pay the Jizya do not carry weapons to defend themselves, but the Muslims are obligated to defend them in return for this Jizya."

• On the amount of Jizya compared to Zakat: "the amount that Muslims pay in Zakat is many times what the People of the Book and others pay in Jizya."

• On the Prophet's commandment regarding non-Muslims: "And the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) commanded that the People of the Book should not be burdened beyond their capacity, and he said (PBUH) in the noble Hadith: 'Whoever oppresses a Dhimmi (non-Muslim under Muslim rule) or burdens him beyond his capacity, then I am his adversary (on the Day of Judgment).'"

In Conclusion:

The excerpts from "Al-Andalus from Conquest to Fall, Volume 2" provide a detailed and insightful look into the early years of the Islamic presence in the Iberian Peninsula. The author emphasizes the strategic brilliance of the Muslim leaders, the importance of integrating new converts, and the divine assistance that contributed to their success. Furthermore, the text serves as a critical examination of historical narratives, particularly the story of the burning ships, highlighting the need for reliance on authentic sources and an understanding of the core principles of Islamic faith and warfare. The explanation of the Jizya clarifies its purpose and conditions within the context of Islamic governance, presenting it as a protective measure for non-Muslims. The document sets the stage for further exploration of the history of Al-Andalus, promising to cover the subsequent conquests and the establishment of the period of the governors.