The Evolution of Historical Schools in the Islamic World: From the Madrasas of Damascus to the Modern Institutes of Egypt
The history of education in the Islamic world is characterized by a rich tradition of institutionalized learning, evolving from the classical madrasa system to the specialized modern colleges of the nineteenth century. Historical sources, ranging from medieval biographical dictionaries to modern sociopolitical analyses, provide insight into the structure, function, and transformation of these educational bodies. By examining the specific case of Damascus madrasas alongside the later educational reforms in Egypt, one can trace the trajectory of Islamic scholarship. This article analyzes the role of the Damascus madrasas as recorded by classical historians and contrasts them with the modernization of educational institutions in the nineteenth century.
EDUCATIONHISTORY
Abdur Sami
12/8/20253 min read
The Damascus Madrasa System The classical Islamic educational landscape in the Levant, particularly during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, was defined by the madrasa—an endowed institution dedicated to religious and legal instruction. A primary source for this history is Al-Daris fi Tarikh al-Madaris by Abd al-Qadir al-Nuaymi. This text serves as a biographical and administrative chronicle of these institutions.
Specific entries in Al-Nuaymi’s chronicle highlight the prestige associated with teaching positions in Damascus. For instance, the text details the life of Al-Qadi Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Abd al-Kafi al-Rub'i al-Siqilli, a scholar of Sicilian origin who settled in Damascus. Al-Nuaymi notes that this scholar served as a deputy judge and held teaching positions at two prominent institutions: the Al-Aminiyya and Al-Kallasa schools (Al-Nuaymi, Vol. 1, p. 1657). The tenure of such scholars was often lengthy; Al-Nuaymi records that Ibn Abd al-Kafi managed the endowment (waqf) of the treasury in Damascus for a long period and taught until his death in Dhu al-Hijjah, 649 AH (Al-Nuaymi, Vol. 1, p. 1657).
These sources also reveal the vulnerability of these institutions to geopolitical upheaval. The historical narrative mentions the disruption caused by the Mongol invasions under Hulagu, noting that the judicial and educational systems faced significant strain during the Tatar seizure of Damascus in the mid-13th century (Al-Nuaymi, Vol. 1, p. 1657). Despite political instability, the madrasa remained the central hub for the transmission of fiqh (jurisprudence) and hadith, serving as the mechanism through which the Shafi'i and other legal schools maintained intellectual continuity.
The Transition to Modern Educational Institutions While the Damascus madrasas represented the classical model of religious and legal education, the sources also describe a significant shift in the concept of the "historical school" during the modern era, particularly in Egypt under Muhammad Ali Pasha. The text Al-Azhar wa Atharuhu fi al-Nahda al-Adabiyya al-Haditha describes how traditional institutions like Al-Azhar University provided the intellectual foundation for a new type of secular, technical education.
In the 19th century, the state began to establish specialized schools to support military and administrative modernization. The source notes that Muhammad Ali Pasha could not find a suitable student body for these new schools except among the youth of Al-Azhar, whom he viewed as the "pillars of his new renaissance" (Al-Zayyat, Vol. 1, p. 1). This transition marked the diversification of the "historical school" from purely religious instruction to applied sciences.
A prime example cited is the establishment of the School of Medicine (Madrasat al-Tibb) in 1826 (1242 AH). This institution was founded to graduate physicians capable of treating the army and managing epidemics (Al-Zayyat, Vol. 1, p. 1). Furthermore, the sources highlight the School of Languages (Madrasat al-Alsun) and the School of Engineering (Al-Muhandiskhana). These institutions relied heavily on scholars trained in traditional Arabic grammar and literature to translate foreign sciences. For example, Sheikh Shihab al-Din, a scholar associated with these developments, played a crucial role in editing the official gazette, Al-Waqai' al-Misriyya, and correcting texts at the Bulaq Press around 1836 (Al-Zayyat, Vol. 3, p. 1). This synthesizes the continuity between the classical scholar—typified by the Damascus jurists—and the modern technocrat.
Conclusion The historical sources provide a dual perspective on the evolution of educational institutions in the Islamic world. In medieval Damascus, as recorded by Al-Nuaymi, the madrasa (such as Al-Aminiyya and Al-Kallasa) was a center of legal preservation and judicial training, deeply embedded in the religious endowments system. In contrast, 19th-century sources regarding Egypt illustrate the transformation of the "school" into a state-run instrument for modernization, epitomized by the School of Medicine. Despite these differences, the sources suggest a lineage of intellectual rigor, where the graduates of traditional institutions like Al-Azhar facilitated the transition to modern scientific education.
References
Al-Nuaymi, A. (1990). Al-Daris fi Tarikh al-Madaris (Vol. 1). Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah.
Al-Zayyat, A. H. (n.d.). Al-Azhar wa Atharuhu fi al-Nahda al-Adabiyya al-Haditha (Vols. 1 & 3). [Source text].